ixa/random/

sampling_algorithms.rs

//! Algorithms for uniform random sampling from hash sets or iterators. These algorithms are written to be generic
//! over the container type using zero-cost trait abstractions.

use std::borrow::Borrow;

use crate::rand::seq::index::sample as choose_range;
use crate::rand::Rng;

/// Samples one element uniformly at random from an iterator whose length is known at runtime.
///
/// The caller must ensure that `(len, Some(len)) == iter.size_hint()`, i.e. the iterator
/// reports its exact length via `size_hint`. We do not require `ExactSizeIterator`
/// because that is a compile-time guarantee, whereas our requirement is a runtime condition.
///
/// The implementation selects a random index and uses `Iterator::nth`. For iterators
/// with O(1) `nth` (e.g., randomly indexable structures), this is very efficient.
/// The selected value is cloned.
///
/// The iterator need only support iteration; random indexing is not required.
/// This function is intended for use when the result set is indexed and its length is known.
#[must_use]
pub fn sample_single_from_known_length<I, R, T>(rng: &mut R, mut iter: I) -> Option<T>
where
    R: Rng,
    I: Iterator<Item = T>,
{
    // It is the caller's responsibility to ensure that `(len, Some(len)) == iter.size_hint()`.
    let (length, _) = iter.size_hint();
    if length == 0 {
        return None;
    }
    // This little trick with `u32` makes this function 30% faster.
    let index = rng.random_range(0..length as u32) as usize;
    // The set need not be randomly indexable, so we have to use the `nth` method.
    iter.nth(index)
}

/// Sample a random element uniformly from an iterator of unknown length.
///
/// We do not assume the container is randomly indexable, only that it can be iterated over.
///
/// This function implements "Algorithm L" from KIM-HUNG LI
/// Reservoir-Sampling Algorithms of Time Complexity O(n(1 + log(N/n)))
/// <https://dl.acm.org/doi/pdf/10.1145/198429.198435>
///
/// This algorithm is significantly slower than the "known length" algorithm (factor
/// of 10^4). The reservoir algorithm from [`rand`](crate::rand) reduces to the "known length"
/// algorithm when `iterator.size_hint()` returns `(k, Some(k))` for some `k`. Otherwise,
/// this algorithm is much faster than the [`rand`](crate::rand)  implementation (factor of 100).
#[must_use]
pub fn sample_single_l_reservoir<I, R, T>(rng: &mut R, iterable: I) -> Option<T>
where
    R: Rng,
    I: IntoIterator<Item = T>,
{
    let mut iter = iterable.into_iter();
    let mut weight: f64 = rng.random(); // controls skip distance distribution
    let mut log_one_minus_weight = (-weight).ln_1p();
    let mut chosen_item: T = iter.next()?; // the currently selected element

    // Number of elements to skip before the next candidate to consider for the reservoir.
    // `iter.nth(skip)` skips `skip` elements and returns the next one.
    let mut skip = (rng.random::<f64>().ln() / log_one_minus_weight).floor() as usize;
    weight *= rng.random::<f64>();
    log_one_minus_weight = (-weight).ln_1p();

    loop {
        match iter.nth(skip) {
            Some(item) => {
                chosen_item = item;
                skip = (rng.random::<f64>().ln() / log_one_minus_weight).floor() as usize;
                weight *= rng.random::<f64>();
                log_one_minus_weight = (-weight).ln_1p();
            }
            None => return Some(chosen_item),
        }
    }
}

/// Count elements and sample one element uniformly from an iterator of unknown
/// length.
///
/// Returns `(count, sample)` where `count` is the total number of items observed
/// and `sample` is `None` iff `count == 0`.
///
/// This uses single-item reservoir sampling while tracking total count.
#[must_use]
pub fn count_and_sample_single_l_reservoir<I, R, T>(rng: &mut R, iterable: I) -> (usize, Option<T>)
where
    R: Rng,
    I: IntoIterator<Item = T>,
{
    let mut count = 0usize;
    let mut chosen_item: Option<T> = None;

    for item in iterable {
        count += 1;
        if rng.random_range(0..count as u64) == 0 {
            chosen_item = Some(item);
        }
    }

    (count, chosen_item)
}

/// Samples `requested` elements uniformly at random without replacement from an iterator
/// whose length is known at runtime. Requires `len >= requested`.
///
/// The caller must ensure that `(len, Some(len)) == iter.size_hint()`, i.e. the iterator
/// reports its exact length via `size_hint`. We do not require `ExactSizeIterator`
/// because that is a compile-time guarantee, whereas our requirement is a runtime condition.
///
/// The implementation selects random indices and uses `Iterator::nth`. For iterators
/// with O(1) `nth` (e.g., randomly indexable structures), this is very efficient.
/// Selected values are cloned.
///
/// This strategy is particularly effective for small `requested` (≤ 5), since it
/// avoids iterating over the entire set and is typically faster than reservoir sampling.
#[must_use]
pub fn sample_multiple_from_known_length<I, R, T>(rng: &mut R, iter: I, requested: usize) -> Vec<T>
where
    R: Rng,
    I: IntoIterator<Item = T>,
{
    let mut iter = iter.into_iter();
    // It is the caller's responsibility to ensure that `(length, Some(length)) == iter.size_hint()`.
    let (length, _) = iter.size_hint();

    let mut indexes = Vec::with_capacity(requested);
    indexes.extend(choose_range(rng, length, requested));
    indexes.sort_unstable();

    let mut selected = Vec::with_capacity(requested);
    let mut consumed: usize = 0; // number of elements consumed from the iterator so far

    // `iter.nth(n)` skips `n` elements and returns the next one, so to reach
    // index `idx` we skip `idx - consumed` where `consumed` tracks how many
    // elements have already been consumed.
    for idx in indexes {
        if let Some(item) = iter.nth(idx - consumed) {
            selected.push(item);
        }
        consumed = idx + 1;
    }

    selected
}

/// Sample multiple random elements uniformly without replacement from a container of unknown length. If
/// more samples are requested than are in the set, the function returns as many items as it can.
///
/// The implementation uses `Iterator::nth`. Randomly indexable structures will have a O(1) `nth`
/// implementation and will be very efficient. The values are cloned.
///
/// This function implements "Algorithm L" from KIM-HUNG LI
/// Reservoir-Sampling Algorithms of Time Complexity O(n(1 + log(N/n)))
/// <https://dl.acm.org/doi/pdf/10.1145/198429.198435>
///
/// This algorithm is significantly faster than the reservoir algorithm in `rand` and is
/// on par with the "known length" algorithm for large `requested` values.
#[must_use]
pub fn sample_multiple_l_reservoir<I, R, T>(rng: &mut R, iter: I, requested: usize) -> Vec<T>
where
    R: Rng,
    I: IntoIterator<Item = T>,
{
    if requested == 0 {
        return Vec::new();
    }

    let requested_recip = 1.0 / requested as f64;
    let mut weight: f64 = rng.random(); // controls skip distance distribution
    weight = weight.powf(requested_recip);
    let mut log_one_minus_weight = (-weight).ln_1p();
    let mut iter = iter.into_iter();
    let mut reservoir: Vec<T> = iter.by_ref().take(requested).collect(); // the sample reservoir

    if reservoir.len() < requested {
        return reservoir;
    }

    // Number of elements to skip before the next candidate to consider for the reservoir.
    // `iter.nth(skip)` skips `skip` elements and returns the next one.
    let mut skip = (rng.random::<f64>().ln() / log_one_minus_weight).floor() as usize;
    let uniform_random: f64 = rng.random();
    weight *= uniform_random.powf(requested_recip);
    log_one_minus_weight = (-weight).ln_1p();

    loop {
        match iter.nth(skip) {
            Some(item) => {
                let to_remove = rng.random_range(0..reservoir.len());
                reservoir.swap_remove(to_remove);
                reservoir.push(item);

                skip = (rng.random::<f64>().ln() / log_one_minus_weight).floor() as usize;
                let uniform_random: f64 = rng.random();
                weight *= uniform_random.powf(requested_recip);
                log_one_minus_weight = (-weight).ln_1p();
            }
            None => return reservoir,
        }
    }
}

/// Samples one element uniformly at random from `slice`, excluding any element
/// equal to `excluded`. Returns `None` if the slice is empty or every element
/// equals `excluded`.
///
/// `excluded` accepts either an owned `T` or a borrowed `&T` via the
/// `Borrow<T>` bound. Dispatches to `sample_single_excluding_iteration` for slices of
/// length `< 4` and `sample_single_excluding_rejection` otherwise. Tuned via
/// `ixa-bench/criterion/sample_single_excluding.rs`.
#[must_use]
pub fn sample_single_excluding<'a, R, T, E>(
    rng: &mut R,
    slice: &'a [T],
    excluded: E,
) -> Option<&'a T>
where
    R: Rng,
    T: PartialEq,
    E: Borrow<T>,
{
    const SMALL_SLICE: usize = 4;
    let excluded = excluded.borrow();
    if slice.len() < SMALL_SLICE {
        sample_single_excluding_iteration(rng, slice, excluded)
    } else {
        sample_single_excluding_rejection(rng, slice, excluded)
    }
}

/// Linear-scan implementation of `sample_single_excluding`. Counts non-excluded
/// entries, then picks the k-th. Wins for very small slices (`n <= 3`) where
/// the per-trial overhead of rejection sampling exceeds the cost of a tiny
/// filter. Exposed so benchmarks can compare strategies directly.
#[must_use]
pub fn sample_single_excluding_iteration<'a, R, T, E>(
    rng: &mut R,
    slice: &'a [T],
    excluded: E,
) -> Option<&'a T>
where
    R: Rng,
    T: PartialEq,
    E: Borrow<T>,
{
    let excluded = excluded.borrow();
    let valid_count = slice.iter().filter(|&x| x != excluded).count();
    if valid_count == 0 {
        return None;
    }
    let k = rng.random_range(0..valid_count as u32) as usize;
    slice.iter().filter(|&x| x != excluded).nth(k)
}

/// Rejection-sampling implementation of `sample_single_excluding`. Picks a
/// uniform index, accepts if not equal to `excluded`. Wins at `n >= 4` and is
/// essentially constant time when `excluded` appears 0 or 1 times. Falls
/// through to `sample_single_excluding_iteration` after at most 16 consecutive
/// matches (or `n`, whichever is smaller), which also returns `None` when
/// every element matches. Exposed so benchmarks can compare strategies
/// directly.
#[must_use]
pub fn sample_single_excluding_rejection<'a, R, T, E>(
    rng: &mut R,
    slice: &'a [T],
    excluded: E,
) -> Option<&'a T>
where
    R: Rng,
    T: PartialEq,
    E: Borrow<T>,
{
    // The `u32` cast on `random_range` arguments is faster than the `usize`
    // form (see `sample_single_from_known_length`).
    //
    // Cap trials at `min(MAX_REJECTIONS, n)`: once we've drawn `n` indices
    // and all matched, almost the entire slice equals `excluded` and the
    // iteration path is cheaper than retrying.
    const MAX_REJECTIONS: usize = 16;
    if slice.is_empty() {
        return None;
    }
    let excluded = excluded.borrow();
    let trials = MAX_REJECTIONS.min(slice.len());
    for _ in 0..trials {
        let i = rng.random_range(0..slice.len() as u32) as usize;
        let candidate = &slice[i];
        if candidate != excluded {
            return Some(candidate);
        }
    }
    sample_single_excluding_iteration(rng, slice, excluded)
}

/// Sample one element uniformly from an iterator, excluding any element equal
/// to `excluded`. Returns `None` if the iterator is empty or every element
/// equals `excluded`.
///
/// This is the iterator counterpart to [`sample_single_excluding`]. It runs
/// in O(n) time and is correct even when the iterator does not report an
/// exact length. Prefer [`sample_single_excluding`] for slices, which can
/// dispatch to a faster rejection-sampling strategy backed by random access.
#[must_use]
pub fn sample_single_excluding_l_reservoir<I, R, T, E>(
    rng: &mut R,
    iterable: I,
    excluded: E,
) -> Option<T>
where
    R: Rng,
    T: PartialEq,
    I: IntoIterator<Item = T>,
    E: Borrow<T>,
{
    let excluded = excluded.borrow();
    let (_, chosen) = count_and_sample_single_l_reservoir(
        rng,
        iterable.into_iter().filter(|item| item != excluded),
    );
    chosen
}

#[cfg(test)]
mod tests {
    use rand::rngs::StdRng;
    use rand::SeedableRng;

    use super::*;
    use crate::hashing::{HashSet, HashSetExt};

    #[test]
    fn test_sample_single_l_reservoir_basic() {
        let data: Vec<u32> = (0..1000).collect();
        let seed: u64 = 42;
        let mut rng = StdRng::seed_from_u64(seed);
        let sample = sample_single_l_reservoir(&mut rng, data);

        // Should return Some value
        assert!(sample.is_some());

        // Value should be in valid range
        let value = sample.unwrap();
        assert!(value < 1000);
    }

    #[test]
    fn test_sample_single_l_reservoir_empty() {
        let data: Vec<u32> = Vec::new();
        let mut rng = StdRng::seed_from_u64(42);
        let sample = sample_single_l_reservoir(&mut rng, data);

        // Should return None for empty container
        assert!(sample.is_none());
    }

    #[test]
    fn test_sample_single_l_reservoir_single_element() {
        let data: Vec<u32> = vec![42];
        let mut rng = StdRng::seed_from_u64(1);
        let sample = sample_single_l_reservoir(&mut rng, data);

        // Should return the only element
        assert_eq!(sample, Some(42));
    }

    #[test]
    fn test_sample_single_l_reservoir_uniformity() {
        let population: u32 = 1000;
        let data: Vec<u32> = (0..population).collect();
        let num_runs = 10000;
        let num_bins = 10;
        let mut counts = vec![0usize; num_bins];

        for run in 0..num_runs {
            let mut rng = StdRng::seed_from_u64(42 + run as u64);
            let sample = sample_single_l_reservoir(&mut rng, data.iter().cloned());

            if let Some(value) = sample {
                let bin = (value as usize) / (population as usize / num_bins);
                counts[bin] += 1;
            }
        }

        // Expected count per bin for uniform sampling
        let expected = num_runs as f64 / num_bins as f64;

        // Compute chi-square statistic
        let chi_square: f64 = counts
            .iter()
            .map(|&obs| {
                let diff = (obs as f64) - expected;
                diff * diff / expected
            })
            .sum();

        // Degrees of freedom = num_bins - 1 = 9
        // Critical χ²₀.₉₉₉ for df=9 is 27.877
        let critical = 27.877;

        println!("χ² = {}, counts = {:?}", chi_square, counts);

        assert!(
            chi_square < critical,
            "Single sample fails uniformity test: χ² = {}, counts = {:?}",
            chi_square,
            counts
        );
    }

    #[test]
    fn test_sample_single_l_reservoir_hashset() {
        let mut data = HashSet::new();
        for i in 0..100 {
            data.insert(i);
        }

        let mut rng = StdRng::seed_from_u64(42);
        let sample = sample_single_l_reservoir(&mut rng, &data);

        assert!(sample.is_some());
        let value = sample.unwrap();
        assert!(data.contains(value));
    }

    #[test]
    fn test_count_and_sample_single_l_reservoir_empty() {
        let data: Vec<u32> = Vec::new();
        let mut rng = StdRng::seed_from_u64(42);
        let (count, sample) = count_and_sample_single_l_reservoir(&mut rng, data);
        assert_eq!(count, 0);
        assert!(sample.is_none());
    }

    #[test]
    fn test_count_and_sample_single_l_reservoir_count_matches() {
        let data: Vec<u32> = (0..1000).collect();
        let mut rng = StdRng::seed_from_u64(42);
        let (count, sample) = count_and_sample_single_l_reservoir(&mut rng, data);
        assert_eq!(count, 1000);
        assert!(sample.is_some());
    }

    #[test]
    fn test_count_and_sample_single_l_reservoir_single_element() {
        let data: Vec<u32> = vec![7];
        let mut rng = StdRng::seed_from_u64(42);
        let (count, sample) = count_and_sample_single_l_reservoir(&mut rng, data);
        assert_eq!(count, 1);
        assert_eq!(sample, Some(7));
    }

    #[test]
    fn test_sample_multiple_l_reservoir_basic() {
        let data: Vec<u32> = (0..1000).collect();
        let requested = 100;
        let seed: u64 = 42;
        let mut rng = StdRng::seed_from_u64(seed);
        let sample = sample_multiple_l_reservoir(&mut rng, data, requested);

        // Correct sample size
        assert_eq!(sample.len(), requested);

        // All sampled values are within the valid range
        assert!(sample.iter().all(|v| *v < 1000));

        // The sample should not have duplicates
        let unique: HashSet<_> = sample.iter().collect();
        assert_eq!(unique.len(), sample.len());
    }

    #[test]
    fn test_sample_multiple_l_reservoir_empty() {
        let data: Vec<u32> = Vec::new();
        let mut rng = StdRng::seed_from_u64(42);
        let sample = sample_multiple_l_reservoir(&mut rng, &data, 10);

        // Should return empty vector for empty container
        assert_eq!(sample.len(), 0);
    }

    #[test]
    fn test_sample_multiple_l_reservoir_zero_requested() {
        let data: Vec<u32> = (0..100).collect();
        let mut rng = StdRng::seed_from_u64(42);
        let sample = sample_multiple_l_reservoir(&mut rng, &data, 0);

        // Should return empty vector when 0 requested
        assert_eq!(sample.len(), 0);
    }

    #[test]
    fn test_sample_multiple_l_reservoir_requested_exceeds_population() {
        let data: Vec<u32> = (0..50).collect();
        let requested = 100;
        let mut rng = StdRng::seed_from_u64(42);
        let sample = sample_multiple_l_reservoir(&mut rng, data, requested);

        // Should return all available items when requested > population
        assert_eq!(sample.len(), 50);

        // All elements should be unique
        let unique: HashSet<_> = sample.iter().collect();
        assert_eq!(unique.len(), 50);

        // All elements should be from the original data
        assert!(sample.iter().all(|v| *v < 50));
    }

    #[test]
    fn test_sample_multiple_l_reservoir_exact_population() {
        let data: Vec<u32> = (0..100).collect();
        let mut rng = StdRng::seed_from_u64(42);
        let sample = sample_multiple_l_reservoir(&mut rng, data, 100);

        // Should return all elements when requested == population
        assert_eq!(sample.len(), 100);

        let unique: HashSet<_> = sample.iter().collect();
        assert_eq!(unique.len(), 100);
    }

    #[test]
    fn test_sample_multiple_l_reservoir_single_element() {
        let data: Vec<u32> = vec![42];
        let mut rng = StdRng::seed_from_u64(1);
        let sample = sample_multiple_l_reservoir(&mut rng, data, 1);

        assert_eq!(sample.len(), 1);
        assert_eq!(sample[0], 42);
    }

    #[test]
    fn test_sample_multiple_l_reservoir_hashset() {
        let mut data = HashSet::new();
        for i in 0..100 {
            data.insert(i);
        }

        let mut rng = StdRng::seed_from_u64(42);
        let sample = sample_multiple_l_reservoir(&mut rng, &data, 10);

        assert_eq!(sample.len(), 10);

        // All sampled values should be in the original set
        assert!(sample.iter().all(|v| data.contains(v)));

        // No duplicates
        let unique: HashSet<_> = sample.iter().collect();
        assert_eq!(unique.len(), 10);
    }

    #[test]
    fn test_sample_multiple_l_reservoir_small_sample() {
        let data: Vec<u32> = (0..1000).collect();
        let requested = 5;
        let mut rng = StdRng::seed_from_u64(42);
        let sample = sample_multiple_l_reservoir(&mut rng, &data, requested);

        assert_eq!(sample.len(), requested);

        // No duplicates
        let unique: HashSet<_> = sample.iter().collect();
        assert_eq!(unique.len(), requested);
    }

    #[test]
    fn test_sample_multiple_l_reservoir_large_sample() {
        let data: Vec<u32> = (0..1000).collect();
        let requested = 900;
        let mut rng = StdRng::seed_from_u64(42);
        let sample = sample_multiple_l_reservoir(&mut rng, &data, requested);

        assert_eq!(sample.len(), requested);

        // No duplicates
        let unique: HashSet<_> = sample.iter().collect();
        assert_eq!(unique.len(), requested);
    }

    // Verifies that the reservoir sampling algorithm produces uniformly distributed
    // samples by running it 1000 times and checking that the resulting chi-square
    // statistics follow the expected chi-square(9) distribution. Note that this
    // test is only approximately correct, reasonable only when `requested` is small
    // relative to `population`, because `sample_multiple_l_reservoir` samples
    // without replacement, while the chi-squared test assumes independent samples.
    #[test]
    fn test_sample_multiple_l_reservoir_uniformity() {
        let population: u32 = 10000;
        let data: Vec<u32> = (0..population).collect();
        let requested = 100;
        let num_runs = 1000;
        let mut chi_squares = Vec::with_capacity(num_runs);

        for run in 0..num_runs {
            let mut rng = StdRng::seed_from_u64(42 + run as u64);
            let sample = sample_multiple_l_reservoir(&mut rng, data.iter().cloned(), requested);

            // Partition range 0..population into 10 equal-width bins
            let mut counts = [0usize; 10];
            for &value in &sample {
                let bin = (value as usize) / (population as usize / 10);
                counts[bin] += 1;
            }

            // Expected count per bin for uniform sampling
            let expected = requested as f64 / 10.0; // = 10.0

            // Compute chi-square statistic
            let chi_square: f64 = counts
                .iter()
                .map(|&obs| {
                    let diff = (obs as f64) - expected;
                    diff * diff / expected
                })
                .sum();

            chi_squares.push(chi_square);
        }

        // Now test that chi_squares follow a chi-square distribution with df=9
        // We use quantiles of the chi-square(9) distribution to create bins
        // and check if the observed counts match the expected uniform distribution

        // Quantiles of chi-square distribution with df=9 at deciles (10 bins)
        // These values define the bin boundaries such that each bin should contain
        // 10% of the observations if they truly follow chi-square(9).
        // Generate with Mathematica:
        //     Table[Quantile[ChiSquareDistribution[9], p/10], {p, 0, 10}]//N
        let quantiles = [
            0.0,           // 0th percentile (minimum)
            4.16816,       // 10th percentile
            5.38005,       // 20th percentile
            6.39331,       // 30th percentile
            7.35703,       // 40th percentile
            8.34283,       // 50th percentile (median)
            9.41364,       // 60th percentile
            10.6564,       // 70th percentile
            12.2421,       // 80th percentile
            14.6837,       // 90th percentile
            f64::INFINITY, // 100th percentile (maximum)
        ];

        let num_bins = quantiles.len() - 1;
        let mut chi_square_counts = vec![0usize; num_bins];

        for &chi_sq in &chi_squares {
            // Find which bin this chi-square value falls into
            for i in 0..num_bins {
                if chi_sq >= quantiles[i] && chi_sq < quantiles[i + 1] {
                    chi_square_counts[i] += 1;
                    break;
                }
            }
        }

        // Each bin should contain approximately num_runs / num_bins observations
        let expected_per_bin = num_runs as f64 / num_bins as f64;
        let chi_square_of_chi_squares: f64 = chi_square_counts
            .iter()
            .map(|&obs| {
                let diff = (obs as f64) - expected_per_bin;
                diff * diff / expected_per_bin
            })
            .sum();

        // Degrees of freedom = (#bins - 1) = 9
        // Critical χ²₀.₉₉₉ for df=9 is 27.877
        let critical = 27.877;

        println!(
            "χ² = {}, counts = {:?}",
            chi_square_of_chi_squares, chi_square_counts
        );

        assert!(
            chi_square_of_chi_squares < critical,
            "Chi-square statistics fail to follow chi-square(9) distribution: χ² = {}, counts = {:?}",
            chi_square_of_chi_squares,
            chi_square_counts
        );
    }

    // Test that each element has equal probability of being selected
    #[test]
    fn test_sample_multiple_l_reservoir_element_probability() {
        let population: u32 = 100;
        let data: Vec<u32> = (0..population).collect();
        let requested = 10;
        let num_runs = 10000;
        let mut selection_counts = vec![0usize; population as usize];

        for run in 0..num_runs {
            let mut rng = StdRng::seed_from_u64(42 + run as u64);
            let sample = sample_multiple_l_reservoir(&mut rng, data.iter().cloned(), requested);

            for &value in &sample {
                selection_counts[value as usize] += 1;
            }
        }

        // Each element should be selected with probability requested/population
        // Expected count per element
        let expected = (num_runs * requested) as f64 / population as f64;

        // Compute chi-square statistic
        let chi_square: f64 = selection_counts
            .iter()
            .map(|&obs| {
                let diff = (obs as f64) - expected;
                diff * diff / expected
            })
            .sum();

        // Degrees of freedom = population - 1 = 99.
        // Critical value uses p = 0.999 (alpha = 0.001): χ²_{0.999, 99} ≈ 148.23
        // from the inverse chi-square CDF.
        let critical = 148.23;

        assert!(
            chi_square < critical,
            "Element selection probabilities are not uniform: χ² = {}",
            chi_square
        );
    }

    // Test reproducibility with same seed
    #[test]
    fn test_sample_multiple_l_reservoir_reproducibility() {
        let data: Vec<u32> = (0..1000).collect();
        let test_sizes = [1, 2, 5, 10, 100, 500];

        for &requested in &test_sizes {
            let seed: u64 = 12345;

            let mut rng1 = StdRng::seed_from_u64(seed);
            let sample1 = sample_multiple_l_reservoir(&mut rng1, &data, requested);

            let mut rng2 = StdRng::seed_from_u64(seed);
            let sample2 = sample_multiple_l_reservoir(&mut rng2, &data, requested);

            // Verify correct sample size
            assert_eq!(
                sample1.len(),
                requested,
                "Sample size {} doesn't match requested size {}",
                sample1.len(),
                requested
            );
            assert_eq!(
                sample2.len(),
                requested,
                "Sample size {} doesn't match requested size {}",
                sample2.len(),
                requested
            );

            // Same seed should produce identical samples
            assert_eq!(
                sample1, sample2,
                "Reproducibility failed for requested={}",
                requested
            );
        }
    }

    #[test]
    fn test_sample_single_l_reservoir_reproducibility() {
        let data: Vec<u32> = (0..1000).collect();
        let seed: u64 = 12345;

        let mut rng1 = StdRng::seed_from_u64(seed);
        let sample1 = sample_single_l_reservoir(&mut rng1, &data);

        let mut rng2 = StdRng::seed_from_u64(seed);
        let sample2 = sample_single_l_reservoir(&mut rng2, &data);

        // Same seed should produce identical samples
        assert_eq!(sample1, sample2);
    }

    #[test]
    fn sample_single_excluding_empty_slice_returns_none() {
        let data: [u32; 0] = [];
        let mut rng = StdRng::seed_from_u64(42);
        assert_eq!(sample_single_excluding(&mut rng, &data, 7), None);
    }

    #[test]
    fn sample_single_excluding_only_excluded_returns_none() {
        let data = [9, 9, 9, 9];
        let mut rng = StdRng::seed_from_u64(42);
        assert_eq!(sample_single_excluding(&mut rng, &data, 9), None);
    }

    #[test]
    fn sample_single_excluding_never_returns_excluded_small() {
        let data: Vec<u32> = (0..10).collect();
        let mut rng = StdRng::seed_from_u64(42);
        for _ in 0..1000 {
            let v = sample_single_excluding(&mut rng, &data, 3).unwrap();
            assert_ne!(*v, 3);
            assert!(*v < 10);
        }
    }

    #[test]
    fn sample_single_excluding_never_returns_excluded_large() {
        // Large slice: exercises the rejection-sampling path.
        let data: Vec<u32> = (0..1000).collect();
        let mut rng = StdRng::seed_from_u64(42);
        for _ in 0..1000 {
            let v = sample_single_excluding(&mut rng, &data, 500).unwrap();
            assert_ne!(*v, 500);
            assert!(*v < 1000);
        }
    }

    #[test]
    fn sample_single_excluding_excluded_not_in_slice() {
        let data: Vec<u32> = (0..10).collect();
        let mut rng = StdRng::seed_from_u64(42);
        for _ in 0..100 {
            let v = sample_single_excluding(&mut rng, &data, 999).unwrap();
            assert!(*v < 10);
        }
    }

    #[test]
    fn sample_single_excluding_falls_back_when_excluded_dominates() {
        // 99.8% of values equal `excluded`: rejection retries get exhausted
        // and the scan fallback runs. Both rare non-excluded values must show
        // up across 200 samples.
        let mut data = vec![0u32; 1000];
        data[42] = 1;
        data[800] = 2;
        let mut rng = StdRng::seed_from_u64(42);
        let mut seen: Vec<u32> = (0..200)
            .map(|_| *sample_single_excluding(&mut rng, &data, 0).unwrap())
            .collect();
        seen.sort();
        seen.dedup();
        assert_eq!(seen, vec![1, 2]);
    }

    #[test]
    fn sample_single_excluding_uniformity_small() {
        // Small slice → iteration path.
        let data: Vec<u32> = (0..20).collect();
        let excluded = 7u32;
        let num_runs = 50_000;
        let mut counts = [0usize; 20];
        let mut rng = StdRng::seed_from_u64(42);
        for _ in 0..num_runs {
            let v = sample_single_excluding(&mut rng, &data, excluded).unwrap();
            counts[*v as usize] += 1;
        }
        assert_eq!(counts[excluded as usize], 0);

        let expected = num_runs as f64 / 19.0;
        let chi_square: f64 = counts
            .iter()
            .enumerate()
            .filter(|(i, _)| *i != excluded as usize)
            .map(|(_, &obs)| {
                let diff = obs as f64 - expected;
                diff * diff / expected
            })
            .sum();
        // df = 18, χ²_{0.999} ≈ 42.31
        assert!(chi_square < 42.31, "χ² = {chi_square}");
    }

    #[test]
    fn sample_single_excluding_uniformity_large() {
        // Large slice: rejection-sampling path.
        let data: Vec<u32> = (0..200).collect();
        let excluded = 99u32;
        let num_runs = 200_000;
        let mut counts = vec![0usize; 200];
        let mut rng = StdRng::seed_from_u64(42);
        for _ in 0..num_runs {
            let v = sample_single_excluding(&mut rng, &data, excluded).unwrap();
            counts[*v as usize] += 1;
        }
        assert_eq!(counts[excluded as usize], 0);

        let expected = num_runs as f64 / 199.0;
        let chi_square: f64 = counts
            .iter()
            .enumerate()
            .filter(|(i, _)| *i != excluded as usize)
            .map(|(_, &obs)| {
                let diff = obs as f64 - expected;
                diff * diff / expected
            })
            .sum();
        // df = 198, χ²_{0.999} ≈ 264.69
        assert!(chi_square < 264.69, "χ² = {chi_square}");
    }

    #[test]
    #[allow(clippy::needless_borrows_for_generic_args)]
    fn sample_single_excluding_accepts_owned_or_borrowed_excluded() {
        // The `Borrow<T>` bound on `excluded` lets callers pass either an owned
        // `T` or a `&T`; both must compile and produce the same answer.
        let data: Vec<u32> = (0..10).collect();
        let mut rng_owned = StdRng::seed_from_u64(42);
        let mut rng_ref = StdRng::seed_from_u64(42);
        let excluded = 3u32;
        for _ in 0..50 {
            let owned = sample_single_excluding(&mut rng_owned, &data, excluded);
            let borrowed = sample_single_excluding(&mut rng_ref, &data, &excluded);
            assert_eq!(owned, borrowed);
        }
    }

    #[test]
    fn sample_single_excluding_reproducibility() {
        let data: Vec<u32> = (0..1000).collect();
        let seed = 12345u64;

        let mut rng1 = StdRng::seed_from_u64(seed);
        let mut rng2 = StdRng::seed_from_u64(seed);
        for _ in 0..100 {
            let a = sample_single_excluding(&mut rng1, &data, 500);
            let b = sample_single_excluding(&mut rng2, &data, 500);
            assert_eq!(a, b);
        }
    }

    #[test]
    fn sample_single_excluding_l_reservoir_empty_returns_none() {
        let data: [u32; 0] = [];
        let mut rng = StdRng::seed_from_u64(42);
        assert_eq!(
            sample_single_excluding_l_reservoir(&mut rng, data, 7u32),
            None
        );
    }

    #[test]
    fn sample_single_excluding_l_reservoir_only_excluded_returns_none() {
        let data = [9u32, 9, 9, 9];
        let mut rng = StdRng::seed_from_u64(42);
        assert_eq!(
            sample_single_excluding_l_reservoir(&mut rng, data, 9u32),
            None
        );
    }

    #[test]
    fn sample_single_excluding_l_reservoir_never_returns_excluded() {
        let data: Vec<u32> = (0..50).collect();
        let mut rng = StdRng::seed_from_u64(42);
        for _ in 0..1000 {
            let v =
                sample_single_excluding_l_reservoir(&mut rng, data.iter().copied(), 17u32).unwrap();
            assert_ne!(v, 17);
            assert!(v < 50);
        }
    }

    #[test]
    fn sample_single_excluding_l_reservoir_uniformity() {
        let excluded = 7u32;
        let data: Vec<u32> = (0..20).collect();
        let num_runs = 50_000;
        let mut counts = [0usize; 20];
        let mut rng = StdRng::seed_from_u64(42);
        for _ in 0..num_runs {
            let v = sample_single_excluding_l_reservoir(&mut rng, data.iter().copied(), excluded)
                .unwrap();
            counts[v as usize] += 1;
        }
        assert_eq!(counts[excluded as usize], 0);

        let expected = num_runs as f64 / 19.0;
        let chi_square: f64 = counts
            .iter()
            .enumerate()
            .filter(|(i, _)| *i != excluded as usize)
            .map(|(_, &obs)| {
                let diff = obs as f64 - expected;
                diff * diff / expected
            })
            .sum();
        // df = 18, χ²_{0.999} ≈ 42.31
        assert!(chi_square < 42.31, "χ² = {chi_square}");
    }

    #[test]
    #[allow(clippy::needless_borrows_for_generic_args)]
    fn sample_single_excluding_l_reservoir_accepts_owned_or_borrowed_excluded() {
        let data: Vec<u32> = (0..10).collect();
        let excluded = 3u32;
        let mut rng_owned = StdRng::seed_from_u64(42);
        let mut rng_ref = StdRng::seed_from_u64(42);
        for _ in 0..50 {
            let owned =
                sample_single_excluding_l_reservoir(&mut rng_owned, data.iter().copied(), excluded);
            let borrowed =
                sample_single_excluding_l_reservoir(&mut rng_ref, data.iter().copied(), &excluded);
            assert_eq!(owned, borrowed);
        }
    }

    #[test]
    fn sample_single_excluding_l_reservoir_reproducibility() {
        let data: Vec<u32> = (0..1000).collect();
        let seed = 12345u64;
        let mut rng1 = StdRng::seed_from_u64(seed);
        let mut rng2 = StdRng::seed_from_u64(seed);
        for _ in 0..100 {
            let a = sample_single_excluding_l_reservoir(&mut rng1, data.iter().copied(), 500u32);
            let b = sample_single_excluding_l_reservoir(&mut rng2, data.iter().copied(), 500u32);
            assert_eq!(a, b);
        }
    }
}